From France and Italy to Spain and Albania, public anger has exposed a difficult question: why do so many Europeans feel less secure despite years of government promises?

On Saturday, 17 October, protesters gathered in central Milan. Some had come to demonstrate against rising living costs and war. By evening, masked rioters were throwing stones at police, looting shops and setting barricades on fire.

Italy’s Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni condemned the violence. Milan’s mayor, Giuseppe Sala, also rejected the attacks, although he acknowledged that the grievances behind the demonstration were understandable.

I found Sala’s distinction important. A city has every reason to protect its residents and businesses from violence. Yet arresting rioters does little to explain why so many people believe that ordinary work no longer provides a secure living.

Across Europe, governments are confronting similar complaints.

France has experienced mass demonstrations involving students and workers. Housing costs have brought protesters onto the streets in Spain and Portugal. In Belgium, students have challenged rising education expenses. Albania faces a broader revolt against corruption and the government’s use of power.

These protests have different causes. They are not one organised movement, and they should not be treated as though every demonstrator shares the same political beliefs.

What connects them is a loss of confidence in the ability of public institutions to improve everyday life.

France: A Government Confronts Anger Beyond Inflation

France experienced one of its largest days of protest in recent years on 17 October.

The Interior Ministry estimated that 550,000 people joined demonstrations across the country. Organisers placed the figure closer to 800,000.

Many protesters marched peacefully. Others attacked police, damaged businesses and set public property on fire.

The unrest emerged from several grievances. Students complained about conditions in schools and shortages of resources. Workers raised concerns about living costs and wages. Anger also centred on government spending choices.

President Emmanuel Macron condemned the violence, while the authorities struggled to restore order.

France has faced such political confrontations before.

In 2018, the Yellow Vest movement began with opposition to higher fuel taxes. It eventually developed into a much wider argument over living standards and political representation.

The comparison is useful, although the present movement has different organisers and circumstances.

For a household already under financial pressure, another rise in transport or energy costs can carry considerable weight. Government ministers may explain why a measure is economically necessary. People still judge it by what remains in their pockets.

France also faces a fiscal constraint. A heavily indebted government cannot answer every demand through additional spending without considering the consequences for borrowing and future budgets.

That leaves political leaders with a difficult task. They must explain why some sacrifices are necessary while convincing voters that the burden is not falling disproportionately on those least able to bear it.

Italy: Economic Insecurity Behind the Street Violence

In Milan, demonstrations against economic pressures escalated into violent confrontations on 17 and 18 October.

The disorder spread concern well beyond the city’s famous shopping district. Shops closed, police confronted groups of rioters, and the Italian government considered tougher security measures.

Meloni’s response focused on restoring public order. That is a basic responsibility of government.

But Italy’s economic difficulties existed before the latest riots.

The country has struggled with weak productivity growth for many years. Younger workers often face a difficult transition from education into secure employment, while regional differences remain substantial.

High prices make these problems more visible.

A person may have a job without earning enough to establish an independent household. Temporary employment can make long-term commitments difficult, even when the monthly salary covers basic expenses.

There is also an important distinction between inflation and affordability.

A falling inflation rate means that prices are increasing more slowly. It does not mean that food or housing has returned to its earlier price.

That distinction matters when governments announce progress against inflation while households continue to compare their bills with those of several years ago.

Rioters must answer for damage they cause. The economic conditions that contribute to wider dissatisfaction require a different response.

Italy needs both.

Spain: An Elderly Tenant Becomes the Face of Housing Insecurity

In Madrid, the eviction of 87-year-old Maricarmen Abascal turned a housing dispute into a national controversy.

Abascal had lived in her home for decades. After the property came under an investment fund’s ownership, a tenancy dispute ended with her eviction on 23 September.

Images of her removal provoked strong reactions.

She died on 7 October, prompting renewed demonstrations and demands for housing reform.

Her case raised a question that reaches beyond one tenant’s legal dispute: how secure is a person’s home when ownership changes and rents become increasingly expensive?

Spain’s housing problem has several causes.

Demand is high in major cities, while suitable accommodation remains limited. Investment activity can intensify competition in particular neighbourhoods, but it would be inaccurate to attribute the entire shortage to investment funds.

Rental regulation also involves difficult choices.

Tenants need protection against sudden and excessive increases. Property owners want reasonable returns and predictable rules. Developers require conditions that make construction financially viable.

A law favouring one group may create costs for another.

Abascal’s case does not resolve those competing claims. It shows why housing policy is no longer an abstract discussion about the property market.

For many households, it concerns their ability to remain in familiar surroundings.

Portugal: When Rising Property Values Divide Society

Portugal provides a useful example of how the same economic development can benefit one household and burden another.

According to Eurostat, Portuguese house prices increased by approximately 120% between 2010 and the fourth quarter of 2024.

That does not mean rents rose by the same amount, or that every city experienced identical changes.

It does, however, show how dramatically the country’s property market changed.

An owner who bought a home years ago may have benefited from rising values. A younger worker trying to purchase a first apartment faces a different calculation.

Higher property prices can improve household wealth on paper. They can also make it harder for people without inherited assets or substantial savings to enter the market.

In Lisbon, protesters have demanded affordable housing and better wages. Their complaints reflect the growing distance between property prices and what many earners can reasonably pay.

Tourism and foreign investment form part of the debate. So do planning rules and the supply of new homes.

No single factor explains Portugal’s entire housing problem.

Yet the political consequences are becoming clear. Rising national wealth does not necessarily produce a sense of prosperity among citizens who cannot afford suitable accommodation.

Belgium: Students Question the Cost of Education

Belgium’s demonstrations have involved complaints about living expenses and education costs.

Student groups have protested against higher university registration fees. Some demonstrations in Brussels and Liège ended in clashes with police, who used water cannon and tear gas.

The violence attracted substantial attention. The underlying dispute concerns the financial burden of education.

Students do not judge university costs only by tuition fees. They must also find accommodation and meet their daily expenses, often with limited income.

Public funding for education faces competing demands, particularly when governments are trying to control budget deficits.

Nevertheless, students have reason to ask what they are receiving for the money they pay.

Education is generally presented as a path towards better employment and greater economic security.

When its cost rises while future earnings remain uncertain, that promise becomes harder to accept without question.

Albania: A Different Protest, a Similar Problem of Confidence

Albania’s unrest cannot be understood mainly through European inflation statistics.

Students and other young protesters have demanded the resignation of Prime Minister Edi Rama, accusing his government of corruption and neglecting public concerns.

Disputes over educational conditions have contributed to the demonstrations. So has a controversial coastal development associated with Jared Kushner, President Donald Trump’s son-in-law.

The project has become part of a wider argument about political connections and the management of public resources.

Rama has rejected calls to resign and condemned violent protests.

The allegations against his government should not automatically be treated as established findings. Nor should the controversy surrounding the development be presented as proof of wrongdoing by everyone associated with it.

Still, the dispute illustrates a familiar political problem.

An investment project may promise economic benefits, including employment. Citizens may nevertheless oppose it if they believe decisions were made without adequate scrutiny.

Economic development cannot always compensate for doubts about the fairness of public institutions.

For Albania, the demonstrations also raise questions about its ambitions to join the European Union. Its government must demonstrate that political authority operates within credible rules.

The Housing Divide Is Becoming a Generational Divide

Europe’s housing difficulties have made existing differences in household wealth more important.

People who purchased property years ago may now own valuable assets. Younger workers entering the market must often save for much longer before they can buy a home.

The difference is not simply one of age.

Family wealth, income and location all influence housing opportunities. A young professional with help from parents may find the market easier to navigate than someone earning a similar salary without that support.

Germany offers a particularly interesting example.

My daughter lives in Munich with her husband and their young son. They have decided to remain in Germany despite rising costs. They want their child to grow up speaking German and learning the traditions of the society around him.

I understand their decision. I have visited them twice and seen how deeply their family life is connected to Munich.

But I also wonder how a newly arrived professional would manage the same city.

In my article Germany Offers Skilled Workers Jobs. Munich’s Rent Tells Another Story, I examined advertised rents and the financial pressure facing people searching for apartments.

Germany needs skilled workers in particular occupations. Some of those workers may find that suitable housing absorbs a large share of their earnings.

A country can simplify immigration procedures and still leave newcomers struggling to establish themselves.

Housing policy therefore affects more than the property market. It influences labour mobility and a country’s ability to retain the people its economy needs.

Why Economic Statistics Do Not Always Convince Voters

Governments usually explain economic performance through familiar indicators. They report employment levels, inflation and national output.

These measures matter. Without them, serious economic policy would become guesswork.

But averages conceal differences between households.

Consider a homeowner with a fixed mortgage and a tenant searching for accommodation in the same city.

Both may earn similar salaries. Rising rents will affect them differently.

A national increase in average wages can also conceal the experiences of workers whose incomes remain stagnant.

This helps explain why economic improvement does not always produce political satisfaction.

Inflation can decline while prices remain high. Employment can rise while secure housing remains difficult to obtain.

The question for voters is often whether their circumstances are improving, not whether the economy has met a particular statistical target.

Political trust suffers when governments fail to recognise that difference.

Can Political Parties Turn Economic Anger Into Support?

The present demonstrations also carry electoral consequences.

Reuters reported on 20 October that far-right parties in several European countries were seeking to benefit from anger over fuel and energy prices.

Marine Le Pen’s political movement in France has focused attention on household expenses. Germany’s Alternative for Germany has used high energy costs to challenge existing policies, including restrictions on Russian energy imports.

Economic grievances do not automatically turn voters towards the far right.

Other parties, including movements on the left, also seek support from people dissatisfied with wages and public services.

What matters is whether established political parties can offer convincing solutions.

Protest movements create opportunities for opposition politicians, but turning anger into durable electoral support requires more than identifying a problem.

Political parties must eventually explain what they would change, how much it would cost and who would carry the burden.

That is where easy promises encounter the harder work of government.

The Limits of Government Action

European governments have some tools available.

They can protect vulnerable households through targeted assistance. They can reform planning systems to make construction easier and enforce existing tenant protections.

Public investment may improve education and transport services, although it requires money and effective administration.

None of these measures will produce immediate results everywhere.

Housing construction takes years. Wage increases depend partly on productivity and bargaining arrangements. Governments must also manage public debt.

Even policies that produce long-term gains may create short-term costs.

The greatest challenge is therefore not finding a single solution. It is making choices that citizens regard as credible and reasonably fair.

Governments that promise quick relief from every economic difficulty risk damaging trust when those promises cannot be fulfilled.

They would do better to explain what they can change, what will take longer and where their authority has limits.

Europe’s Protests Are a Political Warning

It would be an exaggeration to claim that Europe is collapsing.

The continent contains very different economies and political systems. Many people remain satisfied with their lives, and democratic institutions continue to function.

The protests also include different kinds of participants. Peaceful citizens expressing legitimate grievances should not be confused with people responsible for arson or looting.

But the demonstrations deserve attention for reasons that extend beyond public disorder.

They show how economic pressure can deepen existing doubts about political representation.

Citizens may accept difficult circumstances for a time, particularly when they believe sacrifices are temporary and shared fairly.

Patience becomes harder to sustain when housing costs continue rising and public services disappoint, while political leaders seem unable to offer practical relief.

I return to the scenes in Milan.

Police can disperse a violent crowd and restore order to a shopping street. They cannot solve a young worker’s housing problem or raise a family’s purchasing power by the same means.

Those tasks belong to economic policy and political leadership.

Europe’s governments will ultimately be judged less by how quickly they clear the streets than by whether the people who protested can afford to live in their cities after the crowds have gone.

Sources and further reading: Eurostat, house prices; ANSA, Milan unrest; Reuters, Albania.